These challenges arise when participants fundamentally challenge the epistemological foundations of the issue, which can make it difficult or impossible for them to approach the issue at all as their foundational understanding of the issue is incongruent with the framing or assumptions embedded in the deliberation.

These challenges arise when there are power imbalances or historical and cultural contexts that affect how participants engage in the deliberative process. This can be particularly challenging when discussing issues such as indigenous rights or post-conflict discussions, which involve deeply entrenched power imbalances and historical injustices. They might involve societal experience of violence or war and include low or non-existent trust between participants or their communities.

These challenges arise when participants struggle to understand or engage with complex technical or scientific information. This can be particularly challenging when discussing issues such as genetics, and artificial intelligence, which involve complex scientific concepts and models.

These challenges arise from the structure of the deliberative process itself, such as the design of the process or the role of facilitators. This can be particularly challenging when designing citizens’ assemblies or other forms of deliberative democracy, which require careful consideration of the structure and design of the process.